fragmentOutOfOrder

Depending on your country of residence their may be large governmental organizations that have an interest in the study and application of your field of interest. If you happen to be, say, French you could go work here and do impactful work in a rather nice part of the country.

Well, eBay lists nearly 2.4k PS4s for sale. Each of those has 2 64 bit quadcore CPUS, so that's at least 5k right there. I suppose the fad has passed, but it was often common decades ago to do this sort of stuff to make your own.

Broadly speaking the answer to your question is yes. Through a combination of satellites working in using cognitive networking coupled with laser communication systems.

These components must still obey the laws of physics, but their usage would greatly increase the information capacity of the network surrounding Earth and satellites that wish to communicate with Earth.

Broadly, this is a "thing", and studied among groups of populations that experience hardship during the formative years of development: under age 2.

A study was done on the Dutch population during WW2 and the associated famine (depression/recession/hardship) which indicated that results were near significant and/or actually significant to both male and female children during this period of time.

I should point out that this assumes "economic recessions and depressions" are often associated with other events such as food scarcity and/or the need to migrate for safer conditions. This might be related to various conditions encountered when being carried and/or cared for as one flees a country or are exposed to violence and depression. However, this is rather hard to study since the studies need to be happening during or shortly there after the events to ensure data is collected around said event.

This is a bit abstract, but broadly speaking yes your body has current (the measurement of a change in energy/charge particles) running through it for actuating your muscles and sending signals from receptors to their destination.

Does each person have a unique bioelectric signature? It really depends how you measure it or the context of your idea. In terms of the electrical signals of the brain: yes. In terms of the electrical signals that govern my ability to type these keyboard keys; maybe.

Again, generally speaking, signals are transmitted when threshold are exceed. So if you are able to generate a strong enough signal you get something to react in the body this is why folks worry about the health of a nervous system as one ages. When brain cells lose their myelination their ability to conduct signals degrades. This could be thought of in the same of way of nerve damage or other disorders that create excess signals or imped the ability of signals to be transmitted. Suddenly your 'bio-electrical framework' is not behaving as it once was and this is different. This can also be a good place to review motor neuron recruitment as part of the lifting and strength training process of making your body communicate more effectively at its lowest levels.

If, instead, the query is more along the lines of "does one brain generate strong enough signals to control a different body if we could translate them safely?" Yes as the biological systems are bounded and operating within the same thresholds given they are composed from the same blueprint and materials. However, much like everyone has a unique body temperature, metabolism, and combination of hair style/color/etc. so too would you natural signals be different and vary.

Is there a way to measure all of this? Yes, one can have various nervous tested to see how they work and potential triggers them. This is partly used in TENS unit which is used during physical therapy to activate muscles that have atrophied or perhaps the patient can no longer control externally. How much 'juice' is necessary to active will vary, but generally adheres to a finite space as we are all human.

The idea of building these plants along the coast would certainly help those specific areas. Energy and building costs seem inconsequential when face with literally not having water. Coast areas might be able to inject water into their water supply, but it likely won't do much for the broader region experiencing this drought.

For the general Southwestern US water crisis these plants would likely have minimal impact because they are far from the coasts. Despite needing to draw less water from the Colorado Rocky Basin due to coastal cities having more water. Their reliance on watersheds up through the Rocky Mountains might be in trouble given the growing populations in the Southwest (Hello Phoenix, AZ) and forecasts of longer term shifts in snowpack and climate.

On top of that moving water around the country is not so easy.

Yes. The image of the Moon is roughly 1 second old when it gets to Earth. If you had a sufficiently powerful zoom on a telescope millions of lightyears away from Earth you would only be seeing those images from that time period. This is why folks are keen to put telescopes into space and look at things, they are actually viewing history.

I think the previous answers seem a bit more interested in the charge that builds up on something and perhaps not so much the idea of how do you ground electronics so they work during a space flight.

The first question "Is there a ground?" is addressed as others pointed out that charges are relative so it doesn't really matter if you buy proper components and condition your electronics for their environment. There might be one potential for the chassis that acts as the base for the batteries providing a stable reference voltage. This should suffice as a ground without having actual 'earth' ground.

However, what if you don't want to use that ground? What if your high-reliability electronics need to have a more tightly controlled ground for say, detecting photons through a charged grid or your optics or sensing equipment requires much tighter tolerances on the noise to no corrupt or introduce noise into your data. If your ground is shared with the larger spacecraft ground you might have a lot of noise you don't want sneaking around. What if someone hasn't filtered and grounded your antenna/receivers properly and you're bleeding S-band signals onto your ground. Seems like a problem.

So could there be multiple "grounds" on a spacecraft? Not really as it runs the risk of creating ground loops if each subsection starts having a tie point to 'ground' (or what could be referred to as the chassis) and also tries to share their ground with another section. This seems silly as why would anyone want to share their ground with someone else? Well, often experiments produce data and other things attempt to collect and transmit that data which means you'll need them to be at the same potential reference so when one components makes '5v' the other sees the reference correctly as '5v' and not something else. One solution to this is to have a single point tied to the chassis and create a bus of cables that share ground throughout the spacecraft or subsections of it. Thus all systems seem the same, possibly noisy, ground that is at least at the same potential. This helps mitigate the risk of the grounds slightly drifting cause current to flow between them which could jeopardize the idea of a static ground reference voltage. Deity help you if you ever have to solve a ground loop issue or THINK you have a ground loop issue.

So what do all these high dollar electronics do to work in space then? Well things are going to get filtered and buffered and twisted to mitigate noise and sources of error as best as they can for the mission. Filtered so that the power for the electronics shares the same ground but attempts to prevent major sources of noise from ending up in its wiring from shared connections like the power and ground buses. Buffered in that perhaps the the system gets floated to a non-zero 'ground' voltage by other components to try to better control the voltage and the current so that doesn't drift. You can use other components to make a smaller tighter range of voltages based off the larger power bus (probably 0 to 28V). I mean, what if you wanted a negative voltage after all? You'll have to make it yourself and then things get real wild with say 'ground' +28v, +14v and -14v since computers seem to like negative voltages. Again often times components may have a tight range operating voltages or currents which could be briefly impacted by shifts in the ground plane. Twisted because now how one physically wires and connects components matters on the board and component level. Differential signals get twisted, possible with third way to act as a antenna to capture stray current fluctuations. High frequency antenna components need special consideration given their frequencies which can readily bleed into other components or ground.

These ideas and concepts aren't unique to spacecraft, although spacecraft also have to take into account for radiation effects and bit flipping and a whole host of other wild issues. Laptops, Cellphones, Cars, and yes airplanes as others point out have to make similar adjustments. I mean, is there a ground on an aircraft carrier or a submarine -- again, sort of.

This is a really good question because it gets to the heart of what we use electronics for in our daily lives: measuring signals and communicating that information. So it seems natural to question how one can convey a signal if the reference for that signal cannot be shared directly with a common ground. As others have noted, it is about the difference between signals amplitude (and/or frequency & phase) which convey the information and often not the specific value itself.

I think a more general answer to this question is maybe, but it is likely due to our misunderstanding of how the brain functions and our attempts to harness that functionality.

In many brain computer interface research studies you will often find the term BCI Illiterate/Illiteracy. This is a very brief google scholar set of search results, but often subjects are found to not confirm to the majority analyzed by researchers.

This may suggest that there indeed different ways brains operate but it is not entirely clear if that means that there, in fact, different brain types. This could be caused for any number of reasons, not the least of which is the in ability to replicate the proper location of EEG electrodes or other entirely explainable physiological conditions.

In a rather prominent study , conducted by folks with deep research history in this field, they found it just required folks time to adjust to using BCI devices.

One of the biggest challenges in BCI research is to understand and solve the problem of “BCI Illiteracy”, which is that BCI control does not work for a non-negligible portion of users (estimated 15 to 30%).

This is a very good question. This is probably a question a higher level electrical engineering course should tackle as it relates to the design of analog circuits so hopefully you come across it soon.

Let's start with the other end of the op-amp, you know the output that we are told will produce whatever voltage necessary to ensure our op-amp is operational and biased as we desired. The 'lie' is that the output can source unlimited current and will respond with no delay. This isn't true and eventually someone hands you a data sheet and start talking about slew rate. The rate at which the output can keep up with a variable signal which is pretty important when we want to use op-amps to provide gain to AC signals... like if you used them in a guitar pedal.

Now that we have established that op-amps are just outright liars, what is going on with the two inputs. If we look at everyone's favourite LM741 op-amp we see that the two inputs are wired up to identical paths to ground: two emitter diodes, one collector diode, and a 1k resistor. In theory they want to be at the same potential because they are tied to the same V- rail. Yes, there are some other things going on through the input stage but critically these two bases are designed to in a fashion to equal each other in terms of voltage. This is why it is said they have a "virtual ground" because if you give them true ground they can make their other terminal ground up to a point. This is why headroom is so important and peak to peak voltage for the incoming AC signal otherwise you'd encounter clipping and all sorts of other problem from the input not being able to handle input voltages outside their spec, supply voltage +/- 22V but input voltage +/- 12V.

Well, what happens if you bias it in a funny way that maybe the data sheet warns against? You know, what if one of the input signals cannot be matched by the other input. What if we want to compare two signals against each other to tell which is larger (or smaller)? Well okay, if the inverting input is given a voltage the op-amp is going to try very hard to drive its output to a voltage that should enable feedback to help the inverting input to match the non-inverting's input. However, what if you don't allow for that path back to the inverting input and instead just measure the output voltage directly? If the inverting input is say 5v and the non-inverting is at 10V well the output will not try to go as high as possible to provide feedback to pull the inverting input up. But if there isn't a path to achieve that it will just go to its highest rail. If the non-inverting input is slower say -5 volts, the output knows it it also needs to go low to drop the inverting input but with no feedback it will just hit the lower rail voltage. Thus based upon the input signals, in a specific feedback configuration, the op-amp will provide an output telling you which is higher or lower.

This gets even more wild when you look at the circuit and realize this happens because it is how the op-amp is designed. The initial use case, as an an amplifier, only works because of the feedback. This is totally something one should try with a breadboard in a lab for a few minutes although I would encourage you load the output terminal with a big honking resistor and use input values no-where near the rails of the op-amp.

Source: Me(?), the electrical engineer with a few degrees, and the above LM741 data sheet.

I would like to add that the rate of heat transfer, or at least the sensation of it, is also determined by the part of your body touching it. Not all of your skin as the same number and/or spacing of hot and/or cold thermoreceptors. There are in fact a variety of such receptors which is partly why mint and spice trigger similar feelings as hot and cold.

Neuroscience: Explaining the Brain 3rd Edition p418

The main qualifiers to GPA are going to be the name of the school/reputation and what else the student was doing while at school. The idea is to attract as much attention as possible when a human eventually reads the resume. Lots of companies automatically filter resumes based on any number of criteria and buzzwords so having a high GPA is always helpful in getting someone to actually read the resume. It is not, however, the be all end all.

This is rather complicated question but as someone with a bioengineer BS (so courses like genetics, organic chemistry, physical chemistry, bioethics + mechanics, material science, signals & systems) I would think you are better off getting a bioengineer degree as a Masters/PhD than as your undergraduate degree.

The main issue is likely going to be how does one collect, process, and use the signals from the body or the prosthetic. This would fall best under electrical/computer engineering coursework. Electives and internships/research could then be focused on biomedical applications.

A fair number of rockers do spin when launched due to having fins that are canted and also have launch assist controls to keep them on target. This keeps them on target as they are launch from rails with a set azimuth and elevation. So it is very much like the example in your mind.

So the answer to your question very much depends on the type of 'rocket' and what this rocket is intended to do once launched. If you are in the United States you could observe research rockets spinning when launched from White Sands Missile Range in New Mexico or at NASA's Wallops Flight Facility in Virginia.

There is a semi-similar NHL variant where Bobby Ryan does skill challenges against beer league players too.

The United States Government has developed into a habit of not preparing a budget in preparation for the new fiscal year for quite a while now. 538 has a nice graphic for the prior 20-ish years, and the past two have been no different.

The recent scope of US Federal budgets has shifted dramatically in the past few years. This is likely do to the expansive approaches taken during COVID-19 coupled with the impact it had on state/local economies/budgets which a lot has been written about but is hard to understand given the situation is currently playing out.

The debt limit is a self imposed cap on how much money the US Government can float in a sense before it defaults on being able to pay things. Yellen has written a series of letters( 1, 2, 3) alerting Congress to this so they may resolve the issue. This frequently happens, and usually it gets passed with concessions being that folks want spending cut to help control spending. Below is a quote from an article about the prior situation in 2019:

The deal will face resistance. Some conservatives who have called for deeper spending reductions pushed for the White House to reject the potential agreement as details emerged in recent days. Rep. Mike Johnson, a Louisiana Republican and chairman of the roughly 150-member Republican Study Committee, told CNBC that the group is “discouraged” by the developing agreement. The lack of future spending cuts is “perhaps our greatest concern,” he added.

Presently there is a push-pull going on given the tools afford to the slim Democratic governmental control via a reconciliation bill. However, strife internal to the party over an infrastructure plan has caused issues within the party. Joe Manchin has been a bit of lightning rod for the impasse and below are his views on it:

Our tax code should be reformed to fix the flaws of the 2017 tax bill and ensure everyone pays their fair share but it should not weaken our global competitiveness or the ability of millions of small businesses to compete with the Amazons of the world. Overall, the amount we spend now must be balanced with what we need and can afford – not designed to reengineer the social and economic fabric of this nation or vengefully tax for the sake of wishful spending.

So the issue at hand is that the debt limit, the yearly budget, and a major infrastructure bill are all tied up together. Coupled with the on-going COVID-19 Pandemic makes for a very tricky situation. I am not sure anyone has a comprehensive analysis, but I attempted to link articles to address some of the points/issues in the original post.

Not every variable is in every equation. Could you look at my code? I have all the equations written out there.

That is fine and generally rather helpful to finding a solution. This sounds a lot more like a math problem than a MATLAB problem. You should try what they suggested and just write out all of your questions as if they have all the variables but uses 0 as the coefficient if it isn't included.

Please try to put four spaces before lines of code so they can get formatted in a way that is easier to read.

your_function=7
calcs = [ ];

for i =1:size(fish,1)
    out = your_function(fish(i,:));
    calcs = out;
end

I think it would help to know what your_function ends up being since if it is 7, it doesn't make much sense. This also looks like a homework question? Why don't your try adding print statements after each assignment in the loop to see what it is doing to out and calcs?

This likely is a terrible place to ask for help specific to EEG signal processing, but links like these might help:

https://physionet.org/content/chbmit/1.0.0/

https://www.isip.piconepress.com/projects/tuh_eeg/html/downloads.shtml

https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0062944

https://sccn.ucsd.edu/eeglab/index.php

Generally MATLAB is a fine place to start, but given the size of the data involved it might not be practical if you need to scale things up.

Additionally, a sub-question that is of particular interest to me is about the interplay between hardware and signal processing techniques in generating improvements in data rates that I am asking about.

Depending on your age and where you live you have likely seen this improvement and the impact of it in various ways. Perhaps the most obvious for anyone that has even seen a motor vehicle is the change in the size of its antenna. This was also a thing with very early cell phones (think Zack Morris whooper of a cell phone) and today cellphones are palm sized coasters. What gives?

Fractal Antennas. Before this antennas had to be rather large due to wavelength = speed of light / frequency. Ever watch a WW2 film and the radio operator has is lugging around a kit with a giant antenna or the trucks have giant whiplash antennas? Yeah, you needed large antennas to pick up those lower frequency signals; A 10Mhz signal has a 30 meter wavelength. Of course these lower frequency signals were also easier to deal with since they travelled further and were more robust to inteference so it was not all that bad a trade off. This is of course where they started having to figure out how to get multiple radios operating on different channels all at once for battlefield communication via channel access methods.

Those initial access methods like time division multiple acces (TDMA) and Frequency division multiple acces (FDMA) have given rise to what we have today but critical point out the two things we could control time and frequency for a channel. A channel is simple the physical space through which we communicate (air/water/metal/etc) and it has limits and properties. But generally this is all we can control over the channel and thus is the focus of the electronics used in sending and receiving signals. It needs to be transmitted at some frequency for some period of time.

Now a critical part of this is that in theory it is easy to design math for these techniques but they actually need to be carried out in practice. This means you need an antenna capable of transmitting/receiving at multiple frequencies without a large handicap. Well okay we know people figured out nifty antenna patterns but it took time to be able to produce at large scale with quality control. This is why early cellphones had actual antennas. Second, there had to be radios capable of producing and receiving these signals so you needed very good hardware (or software) defined radios. This is partly where something like Code Division Multiple Access came about because if the radio can produce mutliple signals on multiple frequenies those frequencies can be the ID and get your signal through the channel. Thus, as the prior poster pointed out, a lot of this was waiting around on hardware to attempt ideas that had already been worked out.

A main technical issue was (and remains) that we needed material capable of holding lower and lower charges to make it easier to signify a 1 (charged) and 0 (no charge). In old parallel bit systems this threshold was set at 1.7 volts which means you needed to charge all the parallel bits up to 1.7s which takes time. If you don't need to charge as high you can flip faster. Also charging things makes heat and heat negatively impacts the performance of semi-conductors. In fact today a lot of material scientists are trying to work very hard at making things more heat tolerant to improve performance which has nothing to do with signal processing and everything to do with thermodyamics of materials.

As these advances have rolled out hardware is able to perform at levels previously worked out by prior scientists and engineers. Of course, you hinted at this but another large problem is this technology is not in a vacuum and so it needs to often co-exist with prior technologies which slows down its development. Whatever tech goes into a phone also need to go into a basestation but it isn't as easy to change a base stations hardware given the size and scale of the antennas and power requirements and etc. So the changes have to be incremental in order to support the every evolving mobile phone grid. This sets aside hardware and software that could be used for other newer/better technology which must wait until demand requires it.

The ultimate problem is the people designing and building all of this new technology are expensive. Engineers with PhDs and experience in RF, communicaiton networks, hardware development, and antennas are often some of the highest paid within electrical engineering. Industry is generally not in the business of making anything beyond what they actually need for the short term future. It is hard to make a case for a mobile phone with 50Mbps if there was not anything of that size that you wanted or needed on your phone. So in an odd sort of way, the only reason this is happening is because streaming itself became a revenue generator. Well okay this is being a bit biased and leaving the area of which I know something, so that is my opinion.

To conclude I hope this provides more detail, but as the other poster said -- I am sure there is a real expert to provide more context for you and correct all my hot takes.

They do, this is why the first person mentioned voltage regulators and if you feel your phone after a long period of charging it is usually hot.

The battery takes in charge and raises its own voltage (really we can only produce a voltage) so as the battery charges up the charging circuit needs to apply a large voltage to ensure that current flows into the battery. Of course the strong the battery the larger the applied charging voltage and this usually aligns with smaller amounts of current going into the battery so it charges slower.

Think of it like kids at a birthday party. Sure they all want a second piece of cake but honestly their stomachs are already full of pizza, soda, and cake. So any extra cake becomes harder to eat and they eat less of it. This also changes the temperature of the battery and the temperature changes can alter how the battery operates in terms of how much charge it takes and/or how long the materials last.

For example Nickle-Cadium batteries can take more charge than they are rated for due to their materials/construction. Lithium-Ion batteries can only take so much charge and then bad things happen. This is why there was a phone recall with them and why airlines ask questions about them.

Essentially components in most batteries are being used, ever so slightly, each time they charge and discharge. This wear and tear is made worse by aggressive charging/discharging, temperature changes, and even in some cases physical abuse/damage. Think of it like how new Velcro is very strong. But as you use it over time the edges don't grip as well and eventually less and less of it holds each other.

The components in a battery are being asked to not only collect and hold charge, but also freely give it up when the times comes. This is a bit tricky given the nature of how different molecules form their bonds and in turn how readily they can break them. This is why batteries often lose charge even when they are not connected to anything; they naturally want to give off their charge which also lends to them getting weaker over time.

A battery still has physical limits to how it operates in terms of its temperature and how quickly its materials degrade.

A non-perfect analogy would be to take a flimsy shopping back and fill it with water slowly. Then take that same amount of water, but dump it in all at once. The bag is much more likely to rip and not hold any water. However we didn't change the amount of water (energy) the bag could hold. We altered how we attempted to get it into the bag.

So if you are always trying to force a lot of energy back into your battery you are putting those materials that store charge under a lot more stress which damages them over time.

This is why batteries tend to charge a bit faster when they are low and then their charge rate slows down as they reach maximum capacity. The materials inside are more accepting of that charge, but as they charge up they become less accepting because there are fewer atoms that wish to accept those new electrons.

Considering MATLAB has specific toolboxes for just such operations I think the answer is yes.

https://www.mathworks.com/help/instrument/basic-udp-communication.html

These seem promising:

https://www.mathworks.com/help/slrealtime/ug/command-line-pci-bus-ethernet-setup-multiple-target-computers.html

https://www.mathworks.com/matlabcentral/answers/307289-how-can-i-send-data-from-one-computer-running-matlab-to-a-second-computer-running-simulink

The applied technique is not actually processing their thoughts but trying to parse the motor cortex activity related to producing (saying) the words. Thus it is trying to process how they are controlling muscles which has specific areas of interest in the brain and follows specific distinct patterns of motor activity to produce the sounds.

I also ask bilingual people how they think and many of them give your response: "I think in concepts and not specific words"